After World War One, the societies of the European countries were fractured and destroyed. Economies, cultures, and morality were thoroughly messed up. Unstable and inefficient dictator states were created from the land confiscated by the victors of the catastrophic event. The results of “The War to End All Wars” included horrible inflation and terrible depressions. Even the democratic states and countries became focused upon war collectivism, in which war is the health of the state. Many of the European counties fell apart into civil wars or incessantly fought with their neighbors. Three countries, Russia, Italy, and then Germany, dissolved into ideological dictatorships, in which a tyrannical dictatorial government forced the people to conform to the “ideal” society. Unfortunately, these three dictatorships were among the worst of history and ended up further destroying European society in the coming of World War Two.
In Russia, the February Revolution of 1917 ended with the Tsar abdicating and passing all of his power to the Provisional Government. That same year, the Bolsheviks ended up taking over the Provisional Government of Russia in the October Revolution. This sparked a massive civil war between the Bolsheviks and everybody else. Sadly, this civil war resulted in a ruined countryside and seven to ten million people dead. Under the Bolsheviks, who won, Russia became a police state, and Lenin instituted the “Red Terror.” Millions more died. The Communists redistributed food and encouraged the farmers to rat out their neighbors. In this way, Lenin and his comrades caused devastating famine and countless uprisings, in which many more people were murdered. The aftereffects of several assassination attempts left Lenin with poor health and led to his subsequent death. With Lenin out of the picture, his patsy, Stalin, commandeered the government. Stalin suffered from paranoia. Under his direction, his officers oversaw incredibly horrific ethnic cleansings, purges, and mass murder (tens of millions). Soon, even the officers who had served Stalin faithfully joined the ranks of the dead. After the first waves of ethnic cleansings in the late 1930s, Stalin saw a way to gain much land in Eastern Europe by allying with Germany’s Fuhrer. The Non-Aggression Pact of 1938 between Russia and Germany did just this and kept the Communists out of the war for a while.
Meanwhile, in the new country of Italy, the people felt as though they had been cheated at the Paris Peace Conference. The lands that were promised to Italy had also been pledged to multiple other countries. Taking advantage of this, Mussolini led his socialist party into power. Along the way, Mussolini changed and modified his socialist ideas until he settled with Fascism, which is defined as “Nothing outside the state” by Benito Mussolini. Under his control, Italy became a one party police state. Mussolini’s political takeover of Italy lead to terrible atrocities and mass murder. Should the powers of the world have only promised each portion of land to one country, none of this would ever have happened.
After World War I, Germany was in chaos because of the peace settlement. Depression set in because of the post WWI retaliatory policies. To aid the citizens of Germany, a new constitution was drafted and passed at Weimar. However, some people, such as Hitler, did not like the constitution. Hitler hated the way that the war ended for Germany and blamed it on the Jews and other minorities, although he continued to serve as an army officer. He was sent undercover to infiltrate the DAP, a radical nationalist party, and eventually joined it and took control. With the backing of his new Nazi friends, Hitler attempted a takeover of the German government by force, but failed. Upon being released from jail, Hitler began a political campaign to take over the government. After the depression hit Germany in full force, they succeeded. This success and subsequent rise to power is attributed to his blaming the failure of the war not on the soldiers, but on the Jews, socioeconomic ills, and other minorities. His party called for nationalism. When he finally became the leader of Germany, he passively attacked those who he had blamed for years. With Adolf Hitler now in charge, Germany began to commit horrendous atrocities. All of this occurred simply because the great powers at the Paris Peace Conference were not fair.
During WWI, Japan started to become an imperialist power. It had joined the allies and confiscated most, if not all, of the German and Austrian colonies and settlements within the area. Upon the conclusion of the war, Japan realized that it wanted to continue to be an imperialist power, and began to invade China. This country was ripe for the taking. Japan also began to expand throughout the Pacific islands. However, America wanted to become the master of the Pacific too. America began to create its Pacific Defense Triangle, a series of ports and military bases that would enable America to travel anywhere in the Pacific quickly. The primary bases were at the Philippines, Hawaii, and the west coast of the continental 48 states. Due to both countries striving to expand throughout the Pacific Ocean, conflict between Japan and the United States of America was inevitable.
With the outbreak of Communism in Russia, like a nasty rash, the entire country fell apart and was kept together only by terrible dictators who committed horrendous atrocities. In Italy, Fascism spread like a plague and infected the government, allowing mass murder throughout the country. Germany’s cancerous Nazism and socialist ideas grew and spread all through the citizenry, developing a mob mentality based on revenge. Having caught the flu of imperialism during WWI, Japan, and the likewise infected America, strove to expand their powers far into the Pacific Ocean and into each other’s territory. The festering post war world was in critical condition and about to collapse into the next global conflict.

We did not have time to write out full paragraphs for this week’s essays, so they are only outlines.

Why did the WWI peace settlement lead to WWII?

1. Background—Paris Peace Conference signified end WWI
2. Topic—Paris Peace –> WWII b/c discrimination vs. German speaking
3. WWI Winners = Britain US Italy + France
4. Not = Russia b/c communists
5. Austria-Hungary dismantled + land + arms
6. Germany + Austria not allowed allies
7. Germany + Austria pay all war costs
8. German areas given Poland, France, Italy, + Czechoslovakia
9. British hunger blockade 4 months post war
10. League Nations ignore German complaints
11. Germany depend others keep word
12. Peace treaties supposed just + fair all
13. Treaties Versailles = not peace treaty = revenge –> WWII

Why did an assassination cause WWI and why did each country join?

1. Background—Ottoman Empire fall
2. Nationalities split off
3. New countries + nationalism thru west Europe
4. Topic—Serbia agitated Slavs under Austria + killed Archduke
5. Austria demands punishment + Serbia refuses so Austria –> war
6. Russia backs Serbia while Germany backs Austria
7. Germany vs Russia, Serbia, + France
8. Germany invades neutral Belgium
9. Italy abandons 1^st allies (Germany + Austria)
10. France + Britain vs Germany b/c Belgium
11. England hunger blockade all Germany
12. Germany retaliates submarine warfare
13. US (Woodrow Wilson) = anglophile + backs Britain
14. Pres = unreasonable vs Germany (esp Americans on ships)
15. Germany kills Americans so US vs Germany

The events leading up to and including WWI involved much of Europe, including Germany, Austria-Hungary, Russia, the Balkans (the southern Slavic countries), France, and Britain.

During these events, three people played important roles. Otto Von Bismarck toiled daily for the safety of Germany, creating many strategic alliances. Kaiser Wilhelm was Germany’s king, who ended up removing Bismarck and ruling during the war. Because of his conciliatory policies, Archduke Franz Ferdinand became the ideal candidate for assassination, kick-starting the war.

Bismarck was removed from office because the Kaiser believed that there was no possible way that the most absolutist power (Russia) would ally with the land of revolution itself (France). (The two did actually ally.) Then, a Serbian nationalist terrorist cold-bloodedly murdered the Archduke and heir to the throne of Austria on June 28 1914. Because he had been acting in favor of Serbia, the assassin was sheltered by his home country while Germany pushed Austria for action. Upon Austria’s July 28 1914 declaration of war on Serbia, Russia mobilized to aid its Slavish ally. Discovering a way to enter the conflict, Germany invaded Belgium on July 28 1914 while declaring war on Russia.

The nationalist Serbs were hotly determined to unify the Slavic nations under Serbia since the fall of the Ottoman Empire. For this to happen, the Slavs would need to be agitated in their current countries (such as Austria-Hungary) and secede to join Serbia. Unknowingly, Archduke Franz Ferdinand stoked the fire of the Serbian terrorists. His policies were focused on contenting rather than upsetting the Austrian Slavs within Austria-Hungary, painting a bull’s-eye on his back. Essentially, WWI began because the upstart country Serbia craved unification among the Slavs, which blew up in their faces.

19^th century Britain was a time of social and political upheaval. England dominated Ireland and imposed Protestantism as a major means of control. The Prime Minister of England who served from 1868 to 1874, 1880 to 1886, and 1892 to 1894, a man named Gladstone, argued in favor of Ireland’s autonomy. A contemporary of Gladstone, Charles Stewart Parnell, also a Member of Parliament, started and led the Home Rule League. Working independently of Gladstone for the self-government of Ireland, the Home Rule League frustrated most Parliamentary movements. The members of this organization constantly vetoed every bill and law in the voting queue, making the autonomy of Ireland the most important issue for Parliament, as the remaining Members of Parliament could do almost nothing until Gladstone addressed the problem. Because he believed in the cause, Gladstone argued for Ireland’s independence in a series of debates in 1886. He claimed that taxing the Irish simply because they were Catholic was morally unjust. He believed that they should be able to hold political offices despite their religion. Besides, England would save a great deal of money because the Irish would govern themselves. In addition, the Irish economy would drastically improve because the Irish knew Ireland best—they were masters of their own markets. Unfortunately, Parliament voted down any bills in favor of Irish autonomy and the Irish Home Rule movement fizzled out. Gladstone tried his best, and tensions still simmer beneath the surface between Ireland and England to the present day.

A late 19^th century attempt to keep Germany unified, the Kulturkampf was a system of regulatory laws instated by the Prussian Prime Minister, Bismarck. He deeply despised the Catholics because they obeyed a foreign master, the Pope, which put their loyalties in question. The liberals sided with Bismarck because they viewed the Catholic Church as a backwards and messed up institution. They were not without opposition, though. The Center Party, which was in favor of the Catholics, vehemently fought Bismarck and his allies every step of the way. Eventually, the Kulturkampf prevailed and the Catholic Church in Germany suffered greatly. For example, the church was excluded in matrimony; a Civil Marriage, documented by the state, was absolutely required for a couple to be recognized as spouses. Complaining about the Kulturkampf and its vicious attack on the Catholics (and other religions) would result in priests being unceremoniously kicked out of Germany. Likewise the monks of all orders were banished from Germany because of the government’s fear that monastic teachings would influence the people; and the new clergy was trained by the government. Instituted by Bismarck, the Prussian Prime Minister, Kulturkampf assaulted and suppressed Catholicism, putting the State firmly in its place.

John Milton was a famous poet in 17th century England. He served the government during the reign of the Lord Protector, Oliver Cromwell. Upon the coronation of King Charles II, he was removed permanently from the government due to his political allegiances. John Milton lived the remainder of his life both in disgrace and blind. Seven years after his forced retirement, in 1667, he wrote one of the most famous and more contemporary epic poems, styled after Homer’s Iliad and Odyssey and Virgil’s Aeneid. The story was told in blank verse, which means poetry that does not rhyme, and titled Paradise Lost. The subject of this poem was the war between the angels, Lucifer’s army of evil and God’s force of good, and the subsequent fall of man, the original sin. The main character of this epic poem was Satan himself. Satan acted mostly out of envy to God because of his failure to wrest away the heavenly throne during the angelic war, which was caused by his jealousy of God.
Jealousy is defined as resentment of another’s success, but that is not what the sin of jealousy is. Jealousy as a sin is resenting another for what they have and wanting whatever is the source of said resentment. The war between the angels in heaven was caused by this latter form of jealousy. Satan aroused his fellow angels and convinced them that God could be defeated and that His throne should be taken away. Because of Satan’s jealousy, the fallen angels repeatedly attempt to conquer heaven.
Envy is defined as covetousness of another’s possessions. The sin of envy, however, is the resentment of another’s possessions and wishing the source of the resentment destroyed. When he tricks Adam and Eve into committing the original sin, Satan acts because of his extreme hatred of God. He has nothing to gain by doing this, which is by definition, the sin of envy.
Although the entire poem’s story is caused by jealousy, Satan’s final act was committed purely out of spite, and was completely unnecessary. In the tale, Satan acts out of envy more than jealousy. John Milton’s Paradise Lost is a famous epic poem that tells the story of mankind’s original sin.

The infamous book, Utopia, proposed many controversial ideas. More definitely was risking persecution from the Catholic Church because everything referring to religion in Utopia was contrary to the Church’s beliefs.
The Utopian system of religion was established by the island’s founder, General Utopus, and allowed tolerance of all theological beliefs, aside from atheism (apparently you had to believe something other than nothing), which was contradictory to every Catholic teaching because Catholicism was the only possible belief. Most islanders believed in a single all-powerful deity but disagreed on who (or what) he (or she or it) was. Some claimed that their god was an idol, a person (usually somebody no longer around), or a celestial body. The common name for this all-powerful entity was Mithras. Because every family had a different god, the churches did not display pictures of any deity. The church services of Utopia did not have any pomp or color and were generally drab while the Catholic mass was very bright. The church of the European world had daily services, exactly opposite of the Utopian service calendar consisting of one service at the beginning and end of each month and year. Also contrary to the Catholic teachings were the priests themselves. The Utopian priests were few in number and celebrated no sacraments. The Catholic priests on the other hand, were many in number and preformed seven sacraments often. Contradicting all Catholic beliefs, the religious system of Utopia tolerated every theological faith.
The book Utopia proposed several controversial ideas, including the subject of religion. Thomas More, author of Utopia, risked persecution from his own church by writing his most famous book.

France has survived several revolutions in its history, including one in 1830, called the July Revolution. The first French Revolution ended with the reign of the emperor Napoleon. After his eventual defeat, the great powers of the world met in the Congress of Vienna, to discuss what would happen next. Great Britain, Russia, Prussia, and Austria decided to restore the borders of the countries to what they were prior to the French Revolution and reinstate the Bourbon family as the French monarch. This is why Louis XVIII became the new king of France. Unfortunately, after 10 years of kingship, he died and was replaced by his brother, Charles X. Charles appointed his political allies to positions of power. These were men who the entire public openly despised. The public opinion of Charles X dropped further when the capital punishment was extended to the blaspheming of the Eucharist. The people of France disliked this new law because it obviously favored Catholicism, breaking the French constitution known as La Charte, which explicitly stated that no one religion was to be favored by the government. Charles then signed the July Ordinances. Because these new laws suspended the press, dissolved the Camber of Deputies, which was the French version of Parliament, and prohibited the middle class from voting, the French citizens could bear no more. The people of France promptly and brazenly deposed their monarch and instated Louis Philippe, Duke of Orleans, as the new king. Once again, France withstood another revolution.

The French Revolution, which lasted for ten years during the very late 18^th century, took a great toll on religion. Prior to the French Revolution, France had been a Catholic country. During the Revolution, however, France began to war with its priests. In an attempt to buy their loyalty, the Revolutionaries dictated that the government would pay the salaries of the holy men. Eventually priesthood was banned and all Catholics quickly fled the country, unless they were already locked up in jail. Robespierre soon instated the Cult of Reason as a religion and replaced the calendar. The new French calendar would have 12 months with 30 days each and ten days per week. To make the number of days on the new calendar match the number of days in a year, five days were added, each one a national feast. This crazy calendar, along with the accompanying Cult of Reason, were discarded when Napoleon rose to power and realized that nobody actually used the new calendar. Once again, France would follow the Catholic tradition.

During the French Revolution, the Reign of Terror (1793-1794), led by Robespierre, claimed over 16,000 lives. This number, unfortunately, accounts only for those deaths that were legally documented. Killing innocents, the Revolutionaries abused the Law of Suspects by  hypocritically stating this law as their reason to mercilessly guillotine people. Horrifically, the Law of Suspects proclaimed that anybody who perpetrated any remotely suspicious activity could be executed. Citizens could be horribly punished for written works, casual statements, or even by the way that they acted. People were encouraged to rat out their neighbors, sometimes fabricating accusations just to get rid of them. This law, which was a real terror, condemned thousands inside Paris alone.